Soil and Water Engineering

Li-Lithium; H-Hydrogen; O-Oxygen 𝛿 7 Li & 𝛿 18 O helps in identifying the source of salinization and whether Li fraction is occurring in groundwater or not. Due to extensive exploitation of groundwater in the shallow aquifer process of saltwater intrusion has occurred, as a result of which extraction from deep groundwater started. Li, H, and O are used to make a check on this and know about the hydrogeological conditions. The source of salinization was found to be brine water which formed as a result of evaporation from seawater. As a result of the increase in demand for water, the depth of water extraction has increased which gave rise to deterioration of groundwater quality mainly because of salinization which is a common phenomenon in the coastal areas. Moreover, climate change has a direct effect on groundwater quality as when the ice in sea melts due to global warming, there is an increase in seawater level which increases the pressure due to elevation and as

Abstract Groundwater recharge sources are local precipitation and surface-water leakage. Isotope exchange along with some evaporation takes place. δ2H and δ18O show homogeneous results along with the groundwater in well depth,  indicating inter-aquifer mixing  processes. 87Sr/86Sr ratios and δ18O values were found to be useful in studying Cl, Na, Mg, Ca and Sr concentrations to distinguish groundwater (based on recharge sources) Two main processes are identified: 1.       Leakage from the river and lateral mixing of groundwater  2.       Vertical mixing  The 87Sr/86Sr ratios and selected ion ratios showed that carbonate dissolution and groundwater mixing with silicate.  Introduction ·          Stable isotopes of deuterium and oxygen-18 are natural tracers of water, which are supplied by precipitation. ·          Strontium isotopes (87Sr/86Sr) are used to verify  the mineralization processes conditioned by water-rock interactions with carbonate    or with silic

Punjab has an area of 50,362sq. km(1.54% of the country)  which is divided into 17 districts with 141 blocks.  About 80 percent of the state’s geographical area is cultivated with cropping the intensity of more than 180 percent during 2005-06 So heavy water requirement is there. 82% area of the state is under wheat+rice. Out of which 35 Lakh Ha is under wheat and 30 Lakh Ha under rice. 71.99% (29.81 Lakh Ha) area is irrigated using tubewells and 28.01% (11.60 Lakh Ha) using Canal water. Tubewells are increased from 0.19-1.15 million. i.e. there are 13 Lakh tubewells in the state in 2015. Because of decreasing average rainfall annually from 739.1 (1980)-649 mm . Due to the increase in the number of tubewells, the water table is declining in about 80% of the area in the state. In Central Punjab, 66% of tubewells are located . Groundwater depletion rate was 55cm/year in 2015, which has given rise to an endless cycle in which farmers keep on extracting groundwater and it goes deeper and